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DEFINITION
OF A FOOTNOTE
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Clicking the
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In a text related to social sciences
- history, for example -, it is necessary to include footnotes (at the end
of the page) or endnotes (at the end of the document, but before the
bibliography) in four particular circumstances. But, you can't use both
formats in a same document; you either use footnotes or endnotes. Here
are the particular circumstances:
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whenever you include a
quote taken
directly from another author's book or article; |
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whenever you include one or many
statistics (kilometers for a military frontage, number of victims
in a conflict, amount of money given by a government, etc.); |
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whenever a very precise idea or group of
ideas are taken directly and literally from another author's
argumentation; |
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and/or whenever you
include supplementary
information allowing you to define or illustrate in more details a
concept included to your text. |
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In order to include a footnote or
an endnote, we must respect predefined criteria. The criteria can
change from one field of study to another. Thus, the format
illustrated in this page regards, more particularly, a proper methodology
for history papers (theses, essays, synopses, etc.).
Firstly, most of the word
processors allow their users to quickly include footnotes or endnotes to
their documents. For instance, in Microsoft Word, the
user has to click on the "Insert" option of the menu, then on "Reference" and, finally, on "Footnote".
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The notes are in numerical or alphabetical order, but can be of various
types as well. Some of you may want to use roman numbers while others will
prefer letters, notably. This being said, keep in mind that it is
better not to
include more than one reference per footnote or endnote and that each note
is unique, the next one necessarily being an increased number or letter.
The reference in regard to this
first footnote must be fully written, with the exact source:
1- Henry Bogdan,
La
question royale en Hongrie au lendemain de la Première Guerre mondiale, Louvain : Institut de recherches de l'Europe centrale, 1979, p. 24.
Keep in mind that the name of the
author is fully included (first name, then the family name) and that the
title is written in italics; some university departments will
underline the title instead of putting it in italics. After
the title, we must indicate the city where the book was published, the name
of the editor, the year it was published and, finally, the page number(s).
When the reference is about a page in particular, you shall include "p."
but if it regards several pages, you shall indicate "pp.".
If it is an article, the format
is different.
2- M.I. Finley, "The Silent Women of Rome", in
Horizon, no 7 (1965), Tuscaloosa, Horizon Publishers, p. 64.
As you can see, the title of the
article must appear between quote marks, followed by the name of the journal
or review in italics. We also must indicate the prefix "in" before the
name of the latter. Afterward, we indicate the volume number and/or
the date when the article was first published (year, month and day, if it
applies), the city where it was published, the name of the publisher and,
lastly, we include the page(s) to which the reference is related.
Now, when the reference is
repetitive, we can use some predefined terms in order to avoid repeating the
full reference over and over again:
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Ibid.: whenever an
identical
reference to the previous footnote is used; the page number can
be the same or can be different (in
which case, you would indicate the different page number);
Idem.: whenever an
identical reference
to the previous footnote is used (the page number
must also be the same). Some will prefer using the term
"Ibid.".
Op.cit.: when a
book reference has
previously been stated as a footnote or an endnote, but not directly
before;
Loc.cit.: when an
article
reference has previously been stated as a footnote or an endnote,
but not directly before; |
3- Ibid., p. 66.
This "Ibid." makes reference to
page 66 of Finley's article, "The Silent Women of Rome".
4- Idem.
In this case, the reference is
identical to the previous one (footnote 3): same article, same page (p.66).
5- Bogdan, op.cit., p. 45.
For this fifth reference,
I use op.cit. (it is a book), because Bogdan was already cited as a footnote or an endnote but
not directly in the previous note (footnote 4). I also must state the
page number to which it refers. If many different Bogdan books
were previously included as a footnote or endnote, I would have to indicate
the name of the book to avoid any confusion: Bogdan, Histoire des pays de
l'Est, p. 59.
6- Finley, loc.cit., p. 25.
Same explanation as for footnote 5,
but I used loc.cit. instead, because it is an article.
REGARDING
ELECTRONIC
REFERENCES
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When you must include electronic references from Internet
websites, you can use several formats. I propose two popular formats
you could use in order to respect a proper format: the APA and MLA
styles.
APA Style
Family name and first name of the author(s) (year of publication.)
Title of the article or of the Internet website (in italic letters). Date
you retrieved the information from the website in order to include it to your
own document (month, day and year;
note that
this is not required information) and address of the website.
i.e.:
Rice, J.C., McBride, R.H. & Davis, J. (1998).
Defining a web based
learning environment. Retrieved November 5, 2000 from
http://www.byu.edu/ipt/workshops/wbi/text.html.
MLA Style
From websites that do not indicate the name of the author(s):
Title of the website in italic letters. Date you retrieved the
information from the website in order to include it to your own document (month,
day and year) and address of the website in this format:
<source>.
i.e.:
Cyberbee. July
28 2002. <http://www.cyberbee.com>.
From websites where the name of the author(s) is (are) clearly identified:
Family name and first name of the author(s). Date you retrieved the
information from the website in order to include it to your own document (month,
day and year) and address of the website in this format:
<source>.
i.e.: Radford, Robert. July
28 2002.
<http://www.imperialtometric.com>.
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THE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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A few concepts to remember regarding the
inclusion of a bibliography to your paper:
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a bibliography is
basically a list of articles, books and/or any other source
of information used in order to conceptualize, prepare and
write your essay; |
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۩ even if a
source was not included to your paper as a footnote, endnote
or electronic reference, it must still be added to the
bibliography if you consider that this particular source was
necessary in your overall understanding of one or more
concepts presented in your paper; |
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۩ keep in mind
that sources that you did not read by yourself or sources
that are not pertinent (à propos) to your essay must
not be included to the bibliography; |
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۩ the
bibliography section must appear on a distinct page, at the
end of your essay, after the endnotes' section and/or
annexes. But, if you included a final section for the
presentation of other books you published (or your
publisher's other titles), then the bibliography would
appear before that particular "From the same author"
section; |
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۩ the authors'
family names must be included to the bibliography in
alphabetical order; |
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۩ the authors'
family names must appear as capitalized letters;
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۩ if a
bibliographical reference is from the same author as the
previous reference, you can replace the author's name by an
underline (this avoids repeating a same name over and over
again); |
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۩ if the
bibliographical reference requires more than a single line
of text, the next lines must have the equivalent of 10%-20%
whitespace on the left side (horizontal alignment).
This requirement is optional; |
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a bibliography section can be divided in several subsections.
Each subsection represents the sources' media type. Hence, we
may include subsections for books, review articles and electronic
sources, notably. Some also divide their bibliography section
as "General Sources" and "Specialized Sources": in such a case, each
division could also include subsections for books, review articles
and/or electronic references;
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۩
and once your bibliography section is done and properly included to your
paper, it can be a good idea to add a few blank pages. When
publishing a book, the publishers usually require such blank pages.
This is also true for self-publishing through print on demand (POD)
companies such as
Lulu,
Blurb and
QooP. Remember that the total number of pages must be
divisible by four (4) if you decide to publish your essay or book.
For example, if your bibliography section ends at page 85, you would
have to include three extra blank pages (pp. 86-88).
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E xamples of
bibliographical references:
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For books:
Author (surname, first name). Book title,
edition number (not required if it's the first edition). City
where the book was published: publisher's name, year of publication.
Book's total number of pages.
Examples:
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POLLOCK,
Michael L. et al. Heart Disease and
Rehabilitation, 3rd edition. Champaign:
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Human Kinetics,
1995. 472 p. |
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RADFORD, Robert.
Footnotes, Endnotes and Electronic References' Methodology.
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Morrisville: Lulu,
2008. 84 p. |
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For review articles:
Author (surname, first name). "Article title", in
Review title, volume and/or review
number (year of publication).
City where the book was published: publisher's name.
Article's first and last page numbers ("p." if it is a single page /
"pp." if there are numerous pages).
Example:
| FINLEY, M.I. "The Silent Women of Rome", in
Horizon, no 7 (1965). Tuscaloosa: Horizon |
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For
electronic references:
For the bibliography, it is
preferable to use the APA style in regard to
electronic references (see the
previous
section explaining such virtual references).
Example:
RICE, J.C. et al.
(1998). Defining a web based
learning environment. Retrieved November
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5, 2000 from http://www.byu.edu/ipt/workshops/wbi/text.html. |
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Example of a full
bibliography:
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
REFERENCES
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KEAVENEY,
Raymond.
Views of Rome. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. 304 p.
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LEFKOWITZ, Mary R. and Maureen B.
FANT.
Women’s Life in Greece and Rome.
London: Duckworth, 1982. 294 p. |
SPECIALIZED REFERENCES
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MARCADÉ, Jean. Études de sculptures et d’iconographie antiques. Paris:
Publications de
la Sorbonne, 1993. 570 p. |
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POMEROY, Sarah B. Goddesses, whores, wives and slaves. Women in Classical
Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books, 1975. 265 p. |
ARTICLES
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FINLEY, M.I. " The Silent
Women of Rome ", in Horizon, no 7 (1965).
Tuscaloosa: Horizon
Publishers. pp. 57-64. |
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TREGGIARI, Susan.
" Libertine Ladies ", in Classical World, no 64 (1971).
Pittsburgh:
Classical Association of the Atlantic States.
pp. 196-198. |
ANTIQUITY SOURCES
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OVIDE. Ovid’s
Fasti. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959. 460 p.
[Translated by
Sir James George Frazer]. |
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PÉTRONE.
Le Satiricon. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1962. 213 p.
[Translated by Alfred
Ernout]. |
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PLAUTE. Comédies
: L’Asinaire ; Charançon ; Pseudolus. Paris:
Hachette, 1923. 2 v.
[Translated by E. Sommer]. |
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________. Comédies
:
Truculentus, tome VII. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1961.
203 p.
[Translated by Alfred Ernout]. |
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SÉNÈQUE, le Philosophe.
Des Bienfaits, tome I. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1926. 141
p.
[Translated by François Préchac]. |
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FREQUENTLY
ASKED Q UESTIONS
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Here's a
selection of excellent questions that were sent to me by
users of this website. All of the answers are
now in the manual, which is available through
download of an
electronic copy
or as a
paperback version.
If you have a question regarding
footnotes, endnotes, electronic references, bibliographies
and/or social sciences in general, feel free to
contact me by email.
I will answer you promptly and may publish your question and
my answer in the manual's next revision.
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Question # 1
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Yes
I understand how to write the footnote page but in my paper
where do I write the number. For example: "Predictions
about which students will do better academically or socially in
which setting are highly fallible (6)". Does the (6)
go after period or before? Thank you for your help.
Sincerely,
Stacy.
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Question # 2
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Sir,
Doing a poster for a ecology project. Teacher wants footnotes.
If I use photos from the newspaper on the poster do I have to
footnote the photos from what paper, date, photographer etc. on
the bottom. Thanks for your help.
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Question # 3
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When using endnotes, if you use a source more than
once but a different page number, how would you
document that on the endnotes page?
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Question # 4
The following
data was submitted via the electronic form on April 23rd, 2004:
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When you
have two footnotes in one sentence how do you
put them in? At the end of the sentence
separated by a comma or where they refer to a
fact in the sentence?
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Question # 5
The following
data was submitted via email on November 18th, 2005:
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Dear
Robert,
I have been using your web page to guide me to
correctly make my quotations for my thesis.
There is one quote I have not been able to quote
correctly, for it is a tricky one and I can't do
anything for making it right. The case is as
follows:
Georges Banu transcribed, as accurate as
possible (in his own words), the conference of Jerzy Grotowski. The text was published in ART/PRESS
in Paris in 1987. If you could help me, I would
be for ever thankful, for it is of primordial
importance for me (and my university) to have
all quotations and all rules in perfect order.
Thanks
for your time.
E.
Correa
P.S.: I am from Colombia and Spanish is my first
language, so excuse my English.
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From what I
understand,
Georges Banu
went to a
conference
given by
Jerzy
Grotowski
and, after
hearing
Grotowsky,
decided to
write an
article
regarding
this
particular
conference,
which he
published in
a 1987 ART
PRESS
review.
So, if
that’s the
proper
context for
your source,
your
reference
note should
appear as
follows
(this is
only an
example):
Georges Banu,
« Title of
the article
between
quote
marks », in
Art Press
(the title
of the
review, Art
Press, must
appear in
italicized
letters),
# 34 (here
goes the
review's
edition
number, for
instance #34
or No 34 if
it is its
34th
publication),
Paris :
Impr. Le
Scorpion,
September
1987, p. 26
(after
« p. »,
indicate the
page number
of your
article’s
quote or
source of
information;
for example,
p. 26, or
pp. 26-27 if
the source
of your
information
appears on
more than a
single
page).
P.S.: after
a quick
research, it
seems that
this
review's
editor is
Impr. Le
Scorpion.
۩
Now, your
footnote
should look
like this
(this is
only an
example; a
footnote can
appear at
the bottom
of a page or
at the end
of your
paper, but
before the
bibliography
section):
Georges Banu,
« How I
became an
impresario
», in Art
Press,
No 34,
Paris: Impr.
Le Scorpion,
September
1987, p. 26.
۩
For a
bibliography
reference,
there are
some
differences
though (the
bibliography
section must
appear at
the end of
your paper,
on the last
page, where
you mention
all of your
electronic
and paper
sources,
books,
reviews,
etc…):
BANU,
Georges.
« How I
became an
impresario
», in Art
Press.
No 34.
Paris: Impr.
Le Scorpion,
September
1987. pp.
22-41.
[In an
article's
bibliography
reference,
you must
indicate the
total number
of pages;
for example:
pp. 22-41].
____________________________
Source:
Robert
Radford,
Footnotes,
Endnotes,
Electronic
References
and
Bibliography
Methodology,
Morrisville
: Lulu,
2008, pp.
39-40.
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Question # 6
The following
data was submitted via email on September 17th, 2007:
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Robert,
I am
trying to quote something said on a website page. Can
you help with this?
I am writing a paper on the various personality types,
and wanted to add some verbiage about the differences
between Keirsey’s definitions and Jung-Myers
definitions. Here is the web site:
http://www.keirsey.com/pumII/dimensions.html.
Thanks...
J
Have a Great Day!
Vera B., Monterey, CA
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The following
data was submitted via email on October 18th, 2007:
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I am attempting to
ascertain the concrete rule for the placement of
footnotes within certain punctuation marks.
We have quite a
debate going about this issue in our law office,
and we'd like to be able to settle it once and
for all.
Thank
your for your attention to this request.
Sincerely,
D.
Brown
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The following
data was submitted via email on March 7th, 2008:
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Dear Mr. Radford,
I want to quote the
definition of the word 'didaktik' from a
German dictionary that wasn't written by any
one person. How do I do that? The name of
the dictionary is Duden - Das
Fremdwörterbuch. The publisher is
Dudenverlag and the dictionary was published
in 2006.
Thanks for your help,
Rebecca A.
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Question # 9
The following
data was submitted via email on March 27th, 2008:
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Dear Mr. Radford,
Thank you for you help
with my last question. I would greatly
appreciate your help with another problem.
I would like to cite
from a book written by six authors, and am
not quite sure how.
The book is called
Medizinische Psychologie, the Authors are G.
Sonneck, O. Frischenschlager, M. Hexel, U.
Kropiunigg, I. Pucher and M. Schjerve.
Publishing company -
Facultas in Vienna. Published in 1999. 6th
Edition.
Chapter 6 in the book
is called Arztrolle - Patientenrolle and the
author is S. Rossmanith
The page I paraphrased
is 104.
Where on earth do I
put in the footnote and reference list?
Thank you!
Rebecca
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Question # 10
The following
data was submitted via email on March 30th, 2008:
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Dear Mr. Radford,
Thank you once again for your prompt
answer. Next question: Our psychology
professor has provided us supplementary
notes to his lectures to download which
I want to cite. They were written by
himself, Markus Ebner, and two
colleagues Marion Eckler and Andreas W.
Fischer in Vienna 2008, but there's no
publisher of course because it's never
been published. How to quote this
source? The name of the lecture is "Psychologie
für Physiotherapiestudenten".
Thanks!
Rebecca
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If the
supplementary
notes to
his
lectures
are
located
on a
locked
website
(i.e.:
locked
by a
username
and
password),
then an
electronic
reference
wouldn't
be of
any help
since,
like you
said, it
would be
impossible
for the
other
readers
to
access
information
pointed
out by
your
footnote/endnote.
When you
made
your
initial
request
for
information,
I
thought
you
meant
that
your
professor
made it
possible
for
anyone
to
download
his
lectures
-
including
people
that do
not have
access
to
Wien's
Campus
Intranet
Server
(i.e.:
through
an open
blog /
public
website).
Since an
electronic
reference
can't be
used
because
of
accessibility
reasons
and
since
his
lectures
weren't
published,
the
following
footnote/endnote
reference
should
be
included
to your
paper:
Markus
Ebner
et al.,
"Psychologie
für
Physiotherapiestudenten".
Supplementary
notes
given on
[include
exact
date
when the
notes
were
made
available
online
or in
the
classroom]
by
Professor
[include
your
professor’s
name and
academic
title
here]
for his
lectures
within
[include
the name
of the
University
here]
[include
the code
or the
title of
the
course
here]
course.
|
In example: |
Markus Ebner et al., "Psychologie für Physiotherapiestudenten". Supplementary notes given on April 1st, 2008 by Professor Griffin, Ph.D., for his lectures within FH Campus Wien’s PSY-3428 course. |
|
For the bibliography: |
EBNER, Markus et al. "Psychologie für Physiotherapiestudenten". Supplementary notes given on April 1st, 2008 by Professor Griffin, Ph.D., for his lectures within FH Campus Wien’s PSY-3428 course. |
____________________________
Source:
Robert
Radford,
Footnotes,
Endnotes,
Electronic
References
and
Bibliography
Methodology,
Morrisville
: Lulu,
2008,
pp.
55-57.
|
|
Question #
11
The following
data was submitted via email on August 12th, 2008:
|
|
For each page of a document, does the numbering
of the footnotes start again at #1, or can it
continue? For example: on page 1 of the
document, I have footnotes 1 – 6. On page 2 of
the document, do I start with footnote #7 or
start all over at #1?
|
Question #
12
The following data
was submitted via email on August 27th, 2008:
|
|
I
would be grateful for
information. Can you put
'Ibid.' at the TOP of a footnote
section when referring to a
previous book, which full title
is immediately placed before
this 'Ibid.' but on previous
page? Also, do you use
'Ibid.' to refer to a previous
book ONLY or to the WHOLE
previous footnote? There
are some situations when I am
referring to two different
authors (2 books) in one
footnote and in the next
footnote only to the last author
(1 book). Can I then use 'Ibid.'
or should I specify that it is
only the last book. Thank you
for your help.
Ania (Poland)
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Question #
13
The following data was submitted via email on
September 6th, 2008: |
|
|
Hi there,
Firstly, thanks very much for
creating this site. No matter
how many guidelines I've
received I always seem to come
across a situation that isn't
dealt with! I'm wondering how to
properly footnote a citation
from a book that has been
translated. For example, I'm
quoting from a book originally
written in German but translated
to English. The book was
originally entitled, Altirischen by Rudolf
Thurneysen but my copy is called
A Grammar of Old Irish,
translated by D.A Binchy and
Osborn Bergin. I'd greatly
appreciate your help.
Regards
A.Ó. Cléirigh
|
|
Question #
14
The following data was submitted via email on
September 18th, 2008: |
|
|
I have a
simple question concerning
footnotes; how do I cite the
back cover of a book (i.e.: what
word do I use instead of the
page number)?
Hope you can help me!
Regards,
Tove
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Question #
15
The following data was submitted via email on
November 4th, 2008: |
|
|
I am a nascent writer
and am working on my
footnotes. In my paper,
I have illustrated
several viewpoints
of experts to make the
point that there is no
consensus on how and
when iron technology
began in Africa. There
is so much information
to be explained that the
viewpoints cannot be
explained in a couple of
sentences; I need to
elaborate for a
paragraph or two.
I understand that
a footnote is to be
placed at the end of a
sentence by which that
idea came from another
source. But, where do I
place the footnote if
the idea of the whole
paragraph comes
from the expert author
and how will the reader
know the footnote refers
to the whole
paragraph and not just
one sentence?
Thank you very much for
your response and
direction!
Kansas
City, Missouri
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Question #
16
The following data was submitted via email on
November 9th, 2008: |
|
|
Good day Robert,
Next year, I should
enter university and I
would like to study
history but I did not
make up my mind yet.
Would it be possible for
you to give me some
information about
history as a field of
study? I also want
to thank you for this
website...
Sonja P.
Vancouver, Canada
|
History can open many doors once you'll obtain your degree: many government employers are fond of historians and history leads the way to careers in journalism, education and literature.
In response to your ques | | | |
