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DEFINITION
OF A FOOTNOTE
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In a text related to social sciences
- history, for example -, it is necessary to include footnotes (at the end
of the page) or endnotes (at the end of the document, but before the
bibliography) in four particular circumstances. But, you can't use both
formats in a same document; you either use footnotes or endnotes. Here
are the particular circumstances:
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whenever you include a
quote taken
directly from another author's book or article; |
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whenever you
include one or many
statistics (kilometers for a military frontage, number of victims
in a conflict, amount of money given by a government, etc.); |
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whenever a
very precise idea or group of
ideas are taken directly and literally from another author's
argumentation; |
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whenever you
include supplementary
information allowing you to define or illustrate in more details a
concept included to your text. |
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In order to include a footnote or
an endnote, we must respect predefined criteria. The criteria can
change from one field of study to another. Thus, the format
illustrated in this page regards, more particularly, a proper methodology
for history papers (theses, essays, synopses, etc.).
Most word
processors allow their users to quickly include footnotes or endnotes to
their documents. For instance, in Microsoft Word 2003, the
user has to click on the "Insert" option of the menu, then on "Reference" and, finally, on "Footnote".
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Example 1: Microsoft Word
2003 (French version)

Example 2: Microsoft Word
2007 (English version)



Example 3: OpenOffice.org 3.0.1 (English version)

The notes are in numerical or alphabetical order, but can be of various
types as well. Some of you may want to use roman numbers while others will
prefer letters, notably. This being said, keep in mind that it is
better not to
include more than one reference per footnote or endnote and that each note
is unique, the next one necessarily being an increased number or letter.
The reference in regard to this
first footnote must be fully written, with the exact source:
1- Henry Bogdan,
La
question royale en Hongrie au lendemain de la Première Guerre mondiale, Louvain : Institut de recherches de l'Europe centrale, 1979, p. 24.
Keep in mind that the name of the
author is fully included (first name, then the family name) and that the
title is written in italics; some university departments will
underline the title instead of putting it in italics. After
the title, we must indicate the city where the book was published, the name
of the editor, the year it was published and, finally, the page number(s).
When the reference is about a page in particular, you shall include "p."
but if it regards several pages, you shall indicate "pp.".
If it is an article, the format
is different.
2- M.I. Finley, "The Silent Women of Rome", in
Horizon, no 7 (1965), Tuscaloosa, Horizon Publishers, p. 64.
As you can see, the title of the
article must appear between quote marks, followed by the name of the journal
or review in italics. We also must indicate the prefix "in" before the
name of the latter. Afterward, we indicate the volume number and/or
the date when the article was first published (year, month and day, if it
applies), the city where it was published, the name of the publisher and,
lastly, we include the page(s) to which the reference is related.
Now, when the reference is
repetitive, we can use some predefined terms in order to avoid repeating the
full reference over and over again:
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Ibid.: whenever an
identical
reference to the previous footnote is used; the page number can
be the same or can be different (in
which case, you would indicate the different page number);
Idem.: whenever an
identical reference
to the previous footnote is used (the page number
must also be the same). Some will prefer using the term
"Ibid.".
Op.cit.: when a
book reference has
previously been stated as a footnote or an endnote, but not directly
before;
Loc.cit.: when an
article
reference has previously been stated as a footnote or an endnote,
but not directly before; |
3- Ibid., p. 66.
This "Ibid." makes reference to
page 66 of Finley's article, "The Silent Women of Rome".
4- Idem.
In this case, the reference is
identical to the previous one (footnote 3): same article, same page (p.66).
5- Bogdan, op.cit., p. 45.
For this fifth reference,
I use op.cit. (it is a book), because Bogdan was already cited as a footnote or an endnote but
not directly in the previous note (footnote 4). I also must state the
page number to which it refers. If many different Bogdan books
were previously included as a footnote or endnote, I would have to indicate
the name of the book to avoid any confusion: Bogdan, Histoire des pays de
l'Est, p. 59.
6- Finley, loc.cit., p. 25.
Same explanation as for footnote 5,
but I used loc.cit. instead, because it is an article.
REGARDING
ELECTRONIC
REFERENCES
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When you must include electronic references from Internet
websites, you can use several formats. I propose two popular formats
you could use in order to respect a proper format: the APA and MLA
styles.
APA Style
Family name and first name of the author(s) (year of publication.)
Title of the article or of the Internet website (in italic letters). Date
you retrieved the information from the website in order to include it to your
own document (month, day and year;
note that
this is not required information) and address of the website.
i.e.:
Rice, J.C., McBride, R.H. & Davis, J. (1998).
Defining a web based
learning environment. Retrieved November 5, 2000 from
http://www.byu.edu/ipt/workshops/wbi/text.html.
MLA Style
From websites that do not indicate the name of the author(s):
Title of the website in italic letters. Date you retrieved the
information from the website in order to include it to your own document (month,
day and year) and address of the website in this format:
<source>.
Cyberbee.
July
28 2002. <http://www.cyberbee.com>.
From websites where the name of the author(s) is (are) clearly identified:
Family name and first name of the author(s). Date you retrieved the
information from the website in order to include it to your own document (month,
day and year) and address of the website in this format:
<source>.
i.e.: Radford, Robert. July
28 2002.
<http://www.imperialtometric.com>.
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THE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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A few concepts to remember regarding the
inclusion of a bibliography to your paper:
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a bibliography is
basically a list of articles, books and/or any other source
of information used in order to conceptualize, prepare and
write your essay; |
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۩ even if a
source was not included to your paper as a footnote, endnote
or electronic reference, it must still be added to the
bibliography if you consider that this particular source was
necessary in your overall understanding of one or more
concepts presented in your paper; |
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۩ keep in mind
that sources that you did not read by yourself or sources
that are not pertinent (à propos) to your essay must
not be included to the bibliography; |
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۩ the
bibliography section must appear on a distinct page, at the
end of your essay, after the endnotes' section and/or
annexes. But, if you included a final section for the
presentation of other books you published (or your
publisher's other titles), then the bibliography would
appear before that particular "From the same author"
section; |
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۩ the authors'
family names must be included to the bibliography in
alphabetical order; |
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۩ the authors'
family names must appear as capitalized letters;
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۩ if a
bibliographical reference is from the same author as the
previous reference, you can replace the author's name by an
underline (this avoids repeating a same name over and over
again); |
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۩ if the
bibliographical reference requires more than a single line
of text, the next lines must have the equivalent of 10%-20%
whitespace on the left side (horizontal alignment). This requirement is optional; |
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a bibliography section can be divided in several subsections.
Each subsection represents the sources' media type. Hence, we
may include subsections for books, review articles and electronic
sources, notably. Some also divide their bibliography section
as "General Sources" and "Specialized Sources": in such a case, each
division could also include subsections for books, review articles
and/or electronic references;
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and once your bibliography section is done and properly included to your
paper, it can be a good idea to add a few blank pages. When
publishing a book, the publishers usually require such blank pages.
This is also true for self-publishing through print on demand (POD)
companies such as
Lulu,
Blurb and
QooP. Remember that the total number of pages must be
divisible by four (4) if you decide to publish your essay or book.
For example, if your bibliography section ends at page 85, you would
have to include three extra blank pages (pp. 86-88).
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E xamples of
bibliographical references:
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For books:
Author (surname, first name).
Book title,
edition number (not required if it's the first edition). City
where the book was published: publisher's name, year of publication.
Book's total number of pages.
Examples:
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POLLOCK,
Michael L. et al. Heart Disease and
Rehabilitation, 3rd edition. Champaign:
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Human Kinetics,
1995. 472 p. |
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RADFORD, Robert.
Footnotes, Endnotes and Electronic References' Methodology.
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Morrisville: Lulu,
2008. 84 p. |
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For review articles:
Author (surname, first name).
"Article title", in
Review title, volume and/or review
number (year of publication).
City where the book was published: publisher's name.
Article's first and last page numbers ("p." if it is a single page /
"pp." if there are numerous pages).
Example:
| FINLEY, M.I. "The Silent Women of Rome", in
Horizon, no 7 (1965). Tuscaloosa: Horizon |
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For
electronic references:
For the bibliography, it is
preferable to use the APA style in regard to
electronic references (see the
previous
section explaining such virtual references).
Example:
RICE, J.C. et al.
(1998). Defining a web based
learning environment. Retrieved November
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5, 2000 from http://www.byu.edu/ipt/workshops/wbi/text.html. |
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Example of a full
bibliography:
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
REFERENCES
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KEAVENEY,
Raymond.
Views of Rome. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. 304 p.
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LEFKOWITZ, Mary R. and Maureen B.
FANT.
Women’s Life in Greece and Rome.
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London: Duckworth, 1982. 294 p. |
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SPECIALIZED REFERENCES
MARCADÉ, Jean.
Études de sculptures et d’iconographie antiques. Paris:
Publications de
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la Sorbonne, 1993.
570 p. |
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POMEROY, Sarah B.
Goddesses, whores, wives and slaves. Women in Classical
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Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books, 1975. 265 p. |
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ARTICLES
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FINLEY, M.I. " The Silent
Women of Rome ", in Horizon, no 7 (1965).
Tuscaloosa: Horizon
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TREGGIARI, Susan.
" Libertine Ladies ", in Classical World, no 64 (1971).
Pittsburgh:
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Classical Association of the Atlantic States.
pp. 196-198. |
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ANTIQUITY SOURCES
OVIDE. Ovid’s
Fasti. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959. 460 p.
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[Translated by Sir James
George Frazer]. |
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PÉTRONE.
Le Satiricon. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1962. 213 p.
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[Translated by Alfred Ernout]. |
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PLAUTE. Comédies
: L’Asinaire ; Charançon ; Pseudolus. Paris:
Hachette, 1923. 2 v.
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[Translated by E. Sommer].
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________. Comédies
:
Truculentus, tome VII. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1961.
203 p.
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[Translated by
Alfred Ernout]. |
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SÉNÈQUE, le Philosophe.
Des Bienfaits, tome I. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1926. 141
p.
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[Translated by
François Préchac]. |
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Examples of other styles for bibliography entries
۩ APA
Style
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For a book:
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Brown, D. (2001). Deception Point. New York: Atria Books. 384 p. |
For an article in a Periodical:
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Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose
(1970, January 27).
The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and
Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society, 314
(1519), pp. 529-548. |
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Chicago Style
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For
a book:
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Brown, Dan. Deception
Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. |
For an article in a Periodical:
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Hawking, S.W. and R.
Penrose.
"The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and
Cosmology." Proceedings of the Royal Society,
January 27, 1970: 529-548. |
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GB7714
↑
For
a book:
 |
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Brown, Dan. 2001.
Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p.
0743490304. |
For
an article in a Periodical:
 |
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Hawking, S.W. and R.
Penrose. 1970.
The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and
Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society. January 27, 1970, Vol. 314, 1519, pp. 529-548. |
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GOST (Name Sort)
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For
a book:
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Brown Dan Deception Point [Book]. - New York: Atria Books, 2001.
384 p. - 0743490304. |
For
an article in a Periodical:
 |
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Hawking S.W. and R.
Penrose
The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and
Cosmology [Article] // Proceedings of the Royal Society.
- London: Royal Society Publishing,
January 27, 1970. - 1519 : Vol. 314. - pp. 529-548. |
۩
GOST (Title Sort)
↑
For
a book:
 |
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Deception Point
[Book] / auth. Brown Dan. - New York: Atria Books,
2001. 384 p. - 0743490304. |
For
an article in a Periodical:
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The Singularities of
Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology
[Article] / auth. Hawking S.W. and R.
Penrose
// Proceedings of the Royal Society. - London:
Royal Society Publishing, January
27, 1970. - 1519 : Vol. 314. - pp. 529-548. |
۩
ISO 690 (First Element and Date)
↑
For
a book:
 |
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Brown, Dan. 2001.
Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p.
0743490304. |
For
an article in a Periodical:
 |
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Hawking, S.W. and R.
Penrose. 1970.
The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and
Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society. January 27, 1970, Vol. 314, 1519, pp. 529-548. |
۩
ISO 690 (Numerical Reference)
↑
For
a book:
 |
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[index]. Brown, Dan.
Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p.
0743490304. |
For
an article in a Periodical:
 |
|
[index]. Hawking, S.W.
and R. Penrose.
The Singularities of
Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology. Proceedings of
the Royal Society. January 27, 1970, Vol. 314, 1519,
pp. 529-548. |
۩ MLA
Style
↑
For
a book:
 |
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Brown, Dan. Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. |
For an
article in a Periodical:
 |
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Hawking, S.W. and R.
Penrose.
"The Singularities of
Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology." Proceedings of
the Royal Society 27 January 1970: 529-548. |
۩
SISTO2
↑
For
a book:
 |
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BrownDan Deception
Point. New York, Atria Books,
2001. 384 p. (0743490304) . |
For an article in a
Periodical:
 |
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HawkingS.W. and R.PenroseThe
Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology.
Proceedings of the Royal Society. 27
January 1970, Vol. 314, 1519,
pp.529-548. |
۩ Turabian Style
↑
For a book:
 |
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Brown, Dan. Deception Point.
New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. |
For
an article in a Periodical:
 |
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Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose.
"The Singularities of
Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology." Proceedings of the
Royal Society, January 27, 1970: 529-548. |
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FREQUENTLY
ASKED QUESTIONS
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Here's a
selection of excellent questions that were sent to me by
users of this website. All the answers are
now in the book, which is available through
download of an
electronic copy
or as a
paperback version. The electronic copy is an easy to
print PDF document. Both versions are
available
through Lulu's secured website.
If you have a question regarding
footnotes, endnotes, electronic references, bibliographies
and/or social sciences in general, feel free to
contact me by email. I will respond promptly and may publish your question and
my answer in the manual's next revision and/or on this
website. |
Questions answered in the book
Question # 1
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Yes
I understand how to write the footnote page but in my paper
where do I write the number. For example: "Predictions
about which students will do better academically or socially in
which setting are highly fallible (6)". Does the (6)
go after period or before? Thank you for your help.
Sincerely, Stacy.
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Question # 2
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Sir, I am doing a poster for an ecology project.
My teacher wants the inclusion of footnotes.
If I use photos from the newspaper on the poster, do I have to
footnote the photos (from what paper, date, photographer, etc.) on
the bottom? Thanks for your help. |
Question # 3
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When using endnotes, if you use a source more than
once but a different page number, how would you
document that on the endnotes page? |
Question # 4
The following
data was submitted via the electronic form on April 23rd, 2004:
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When you
have two footnotes in one sentence, how do you
put them in? At the end of the sentence
separated by a comma or where they refer to a
fact in the sentence? |
Question #
5
The following
data was submitted via email on September 17th, 2007:
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Robert,
I am
trying to quote something said on a website page. Can
you help with this?
I am writing a paper on the various personality types,
and wanted to add some verbiage about the differences
between Keirsey’s definitions and Jung-Myers
definitions. Here is the website:
http://www.keirsey.com/pumII/dimensions.html.
Thanks...
J
Have a Great Day!
Vera B., Monterey, CA
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