How to write footnotes, endnotes, electronic references and bibliographies in a proper format

DEFINITION OF A FOOTNOTE ↑

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In a text related to social sciences - history, for example -, it is necessary to include footnotes (at the end of the page) or endnotes (at the end of the document, but before the bibliography) in four particular circumstances. But, you can't use both formats in a same document; you either use footnotes or endnotes. Here are the particular circumstances:

۩ whenever you include a quote taken directly from another author's book or article;

۩ whenever you include one or many statistics (kilometers for a military frontage, number of victims in a conflict, amount of money given by a government, etc.);

۩ whenever a very precise idea or group of ideas are taken directly and literally from another author's argumentation;

۩ whenever you include supplementary information allowing you to define or illustrate in more details a concept included to your text.

In order to include a footnote or an endnote, we must respect predefined criteria. The criteria can change from one field of study to another. Thus, the format illustrated in this page regards, more particularly, a proper methodology for history papers (theses, essays, synopses, etc.).

Most word processors allow their users to quickly include footnotes or endnotes to their documents. For instance, in Microsoft Word 2003, the user has to click on the "Insert" option of the menu, then on "Reference" and, finally, on "Footnote".

Example 1: Microsoft Word 2003 (French version)

Example 2: Microsoft Word 2007 (English version)

Example 3: OpenOffice.org 3.0.1 (English version)

The notes are in numerical or alphabetical order, but can be of various types as well. Some of you may want to use roman numbers while others will prefer letters, notably. This being said, keep in mind that it is better not to include more than one reference per footnote or endnote and that each note is unique, the next one necessarily being an increased number or letter.

The reference in regard to this first footnote must be fully written, with the exact source:

1- Henry Bogdan, La question royale en Hongrie au lendemain de la Premičre Guerre mondiale, Louvain : Institut de recherches de l'Europe centrale, 1979, p. 24.

Keep in mind that the name of the author is fully included (first name, then the family name) and that the title is written in italics; some university departments will underline the title instead of putting it in italics. After the title, we must indicate the city where the book was published, the name of the editor, the year it was published and, finally, the page number(s). When the reference is about a page in particular, you shall include "p." but if it regards several pages, you shall indicate "pp.".

If it is an article, the format is different.

2- M.I. Finley, "The Silent Women of Rome", in Horizon, no 7 (1965), Tuscaloosa, Horizon Publishers, p. 64.

As you can see, the title of the article must appear between quote marks, followed by the name of the journal or review in italics. We also must indicate the prefix "in" before the name of the latter. Afterward, we indicate the volume number and/or the date when the article was first published (year, month and day, if it applies), the city where it was published, the name of the publisher and, lastly, we include the page(s) to which the reference is related.

Now, when the reference is repetitive, we can use some predefined terms in order to avoid repeating the full reference over and over again:

Ibid.: whenever an identical reference to the previous footnote is used; the page number can be the same or can be different (in which case, you would indicate the different page number);

Idem.: whenever an identical reference to the previous footnote is used (the page number must also be the same). Some will prefer using the term "Ibid.".

Op.cit.: when a book reference has previously been stated as a footnote or an endnote, but not directly before;

Loc.cit.: when an article reference has previously been stated as a footnote or an endnote, but not directly before;

3- Ibid., p. 66.

This "Ibid." makes reference to page 66 of Finley's article, "The Silent Women of Rome".

4- Idem.

In this case, the reference is identical to the previous one (footnote 3): same article, same page (p.66).

5- Bogdan, op.cit., p. 45.

For this fifth reference, I use op.cit. (it is a book), because Bogdan was already cited as a footnote or an endnote but not directly in the previous note (footnote 4). I also must state the page number to which it refers. If many different Bogdan books were previously included as a footnote or endnote, I would have to indicate the name of the book to avoid any confusion: Bogdan, Histoire des pays de l'Est, p. 59.

6- Finley, loc.cit., p. 25.

Same explanation as for footnote 5, but I used loc.cit. instead, because it is an article.

REGARDING ELECTRONIC REFERENCES ↑

When you must include electronic references from Internet websites, you can use several formats. I propose two popular formats you could use in order to respect a proper format: the APA and MLA styles.

APA Style

Family name and first name of the author(s) (year of publication.) Title of the article or of the Internet website (in italic letters). Date you retrieved the information from the website in order to include it to your own document (month, day and year; note that this is not required information) and address of the website.

i.e.:

Rice, J.C., McBride, R.H. & Davis, J. (1998). Defining a web based learning environment. Retrieved November 5, 2000 from http://www.byu.edu/ipt/workshops/wbi/text.html.

MLA Style

From websites that do not indicate the name of the author(s):

Title of the website in italic letters. Date you retrieved the information from the website in order to include it to your own document (month, day and year) and address of the website in this format: <source>.

Cyberbee. July 28 2002. <http://www.cyberbee.com>.

From websites where the name of the author(s) is (are) clearly identified:

Family name and first name of the author(s). Date you retrieved the information from the website in order to include it to your own document (month, day and year) and address of the website in this format: <source>.

i.e.: Radford, Robert. July 28 2002. <http://www.imperialtometric.com>.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY ↑

A few concepts to remember regarding the inclusion of a bibliography to your paper:

۩ a bibliography is basically a list of articles, books and/or any other source of information used in order to conceptualize, prepare and write your essay;

۩ even if a source was not included to your paper as a footnote, endnote or electronic reference, it must still be added to the bibliography if you consider that this particular source was necessary in your overall understanding of one or more concepts presented in your paper;

۩ keep in mind that sources that you did not read by yourself or sources that are not pertinent (ŕ propos) to your essay must not be included to the bibliography;

۩ the bibliography section must appear on a distinct page, at the end of your essay, after the endnotes' section and/or annexes. But, if you included a final section for the presentation of other books you published (or your publisher's other titles), then the bibliography would appear before that particular "From the same author" section;

۩ the authors' family names must be included to the bibliography in alphabetical order;

۩ the authors' family names must appear as capitalized letters;

۩ if a bibliographical reference is from the same author as the previous reference, you can replace the author's name by an underline (this avoids repeating a same name over and over again);

۩ if the bibliographical reference requires more than a single line of text, the next lines must have the equivalent of 10%-20% whitespace on the left side (horizontal alignment). This requirement is optional;

۩ a bibliography section can be divided in several subsections. Each subsection represents the sources' media type. Hence, we may include subsections for books, review articles and electronic sources, notably. Some also divide their bibliography section as "General Sources" and "Specialized Sources": in such a case, each division could also include subsections for books, review articles and/or electronic references;

۩ and once your bibliography section is done and properly included to your paper, it can be a good idea to add a few blank pages. When publishing a book, the publishers usually require such blank pages. This is also true for self-publishing through print on demand (POD) companies such as Lulu, Blurb and QooP. Remember that the total number of pages must be divisible by four (4) if you decide to publish your essay or book. For example, if your bibliography section ends at page 85, you would have to include three extra blank pages (pp. 86-88).

Examples of bibliographical references:

For books:

Author (surname, first name). Book title, edition number (not required if it's the first edition). City where the book was published: publisher's name, year of publication. Book's total number of pages.

Examples:

POLLOCK, Michael L. et al. Heart Disease and Rehabilitation, 3rd edition. Champaign:

Human Kinetics, 1995. 472 p.

RADFORD, Robert. Footnotes, Endnotes and Electronic References' Methodology.

Morrisville: Lulu, 2008. 84 p.

For review articles:

Author (surname, first name). "Article title", in Review title, volume and/or review number (year of publication). City where the book was published: publisher's name. Article's first and last page numbers ("p." if it is a single page / "pp." if there are numerous pages).

Example:

FINLEY, M.I. "The Silent Women of Rome", in Horizon, n^o 7 (1965). Tuscaloosa: Horizon

Publishers. pp. 57-64.

For electronic references:

For the bibliography, it is preferable to use the APA style in regard to electronic references (see the previous section explaining such virtual references).

Example:

RICE, J.C. et al. (1998). Defining a web based learning environment. Retrieved November

5, 2000 from http://www.byu.edu/ipt/workshops/wbi/text.html.

Example of a full bibliography:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL REFERENCES

KEAVENEY, Raymond. Views of Rome. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. 304 p.

LEFKOWITZ, Mary R. and Maureen B. FANT. Womens Life in Greece and Rome.

London: Duckworth, 1982. 294 p.

SPECIALIZED REFERENCES

MARCADÉ, Jean. Études de sculptures et diconographie antiques. Paris: Publications de

la Sorbonne, 1993. 570 p.

POMEROY, Sarah B. Goddesses, whores, wives and slaves. Women in Classical
Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books, 1975. 265 p.

ARTICLES

FINLEY, M.I. " The Silent Women of Rome ", in Horizon, n^o 7 (1965). Tuscaloosa: Horizon

Publishers. pp. 57-64.

TREGGIARI, Susan. " Libertine Ladies ", in Classical World, n^o 64 (1971). Pittsburgh:

Classical Association of the Atlantic States. pp. 196-198.

ANTIQUITY SOURCES

OVIDE. Ovids Fasti. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959. 460 p.

[Translated by Sir James George Frazer].

PÉTRONE. Le Satiricon. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1962. 213 p.

[Translated by Alfred Ernout].

PLAUTE. Comédies : LAsinaire ; Charançon ; Pseudolus. Paris: Hachette, 1923. 2 v.

[Translated by E. Sommer].

________. Comédies : Truculentus, tome VII. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1961. 203 p.

[Translated by Alfred Ernout].

SÉNČQUE, le Philosophe. Des Bienfaits, tome I. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1926. 141 p.

[Translated by François Préchac].

Examples of other styles for bibliography entries

۩ APA Style ^↑

For a book:

Brown, D. (2001). Deception Point. New York: Atria Books. 384 p.

For an article in a Periodical:

Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose (1970, January 27). The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society, 314 (1519), pp. 529-548.

۩ Chicago Style ^↑

For a book:

Brown, Dan. Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p.

For an article in a Periodical:

Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose. "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology." Proceedings of the Royal Society, January 27, 1970: 529-548.

۩ GB7714 ^↑

For a book:

Brown, Dan. 2001. Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. 0743490304.

For an article in a Periodical:

Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose. 1970. The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society. January 27, 1970, Vol. 314, 1519, pp. 529-548.

۩ GOST (Name Sort) ^↑

For a book:

Brown Dan Deception Point [Book]. - New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. - 0743490304.

For an article in a Periodical:

Hawking S.W. and R. Penrose The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology [Article] // Proceedings of the Royal Society. - London: Royal Society Publishing, January 27, 1970. - 1519 : Vol. 314. - pp. 529-548.

۩ GOST (Title Sort) ^↑

For a book:

Deception Point [Book] / auth. Brown Dan. - New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. - 0743490304.

For an article in a Periodical:

The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology [Article] / auth. Hawking S.W. and R. Penrose // Proceedings of the Royal Society. - London: Royal Society Publishing, January 27, 1970. - 1519 : Vol. 314. - pp. 529-548.

۩ ISO 690 (First Element and Date) ^↑

For a book:

Brown, Dan. 2001. Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. 0743490304.

For an article in a Periodical:

Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose. 1970. The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society. January 27, 1970, Vol. 314, 1519, pp. 529-548.

۩ ISO 690 (Numerical Reference) ^↑

For a book:

[index]. Brown, Dan. Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. 0743490304.

For an article in a Periodical:

[index]. Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose. The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society. January 27, 1970, Vol. 314, 1519, pp. 529-548.

۩ MLA Style ^↑

For a book:

Brown, Dan. Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p.

For an article in a Periodical:

Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose. "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology." Proceedings of the Royal Society 27 January 1970: 529-548.

۩ SISTO2 ^↑

For a book:

BrownDan Deception Point. New York, Atria Books, 2001. 384 p. (0743490304) .

For an article in a Periodical:

HawkingS.W. and R.PenroseThe Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society. 27 January 1970, Vol. 314, 1519, pp.529-548.

۩ Turabian Style ^↑

For a book:

Brown, Dan. Deception Point. New York: Atria Books, 2001. 384 p.

For an article in a Periodical:

Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose. "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology." Proceedings of the Royal Society, January 27, 1970: 529-548.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ↑

Here's a selection of excellent questions that were sent to me by users of this website. All the answers are now in the book, which is available through download of an electronic copy or as a paperback version. The electronic copy is an easy to print PDF document. Both versions are available through Lulu's secured website.

If you have a question regarding footnotes, endnotes, electronic references, bibliographies and/or social sciences in general, feel free to contact me by email. I will respond promptly and may publish your question and my answer in the manual's next revision and/or on this website.

Questions answered in the book

Question # 1

Yes I understand how to write the footnote page but in my paper where do I write the number. For example: "Predictions about which students will do better academically or socially in which setting are highly fallible (6)". Does the (6) go after period or before? Thank you for your help.

Sincerely,
Stacy.

Question # 2

Sir,
I am doing a poster for an ecology project. My teacher wants the inclusion of footnotes. If I use photos from the newspaper on the poster, do I have to footnote the photos (from what paper, date, photographer, etc.) on the bottom? Thanks for your help.

Question # 3

When using endnotes, if you use a source more than once but a different page number, how would you document that on the endnotes page?

Question # 4

The following data was submitted via the electronic form on April 23^rd, 2004:

When you have two footnotes in one sentence, how do you put them in? At the end of the sentence separated by a comma or where they refer to a fact in the sentence?

Question # 5

The following data was submitted via email on September 17^th, 2007:

Robert,

I am trying to quote something said on a website page. Can you help with this? I am writing a paper on the various personality types, and wanted to add some verbiage about the differences between Keirseys definitions and Jung-Myers definitions. Here is the website: http://www.keirsey.com/pumII/dimensions.html.

Thanks... J Have a Great Day!

Vera B., Monterey, CA

Question # 6

The following data was submitted via email on October 18^th, 2007:

Dear Sir:

I am attempting to ascertain the concrete rule for the placement of footnotes within certain punctuation marks.

In searching the Internet, I turned up the following in your FAQs on footnotes:

Cf. Question #1:

" . . . I understand how to write the footnote page but in my paper where do I write the number. For example: "Predictions about which students will do better academically or socially in which setting are highly fallible (6)". Does the (6) go after period or before? Thank you for your help. Sincerely, Stacy".

Answer:

The number must always be included before the period, never after, and must ideally appear at the end of your statement. Here is an example:

" The international comparisons present the main statistical indicators of more than 230 countries and territories, grouped by theme: population and income, labour force and prices, gross domestic product, international trade and investments, education and communication, health "¹.

Can you please provide me the source for your answer? We have quite a debate going about this issue in our law office, and we'd like to be able to settle it once and for all.

Thank your for your attention to this request.

Sincerely,

D. Brown

Answer

Good day,

First of all, thank you for visiting my website. Your question is an excellent one. Before defending my point of view, it is of the upmost importance to say that in the world of reference notes, many different methods exist and several Écoles de pensée (Schools of thought) have their own little system for including and representing their references to their papers. Some thinkers are also against the use of any form of footnotes or endnotes and include their sources directly in the text.

Now, even if I dont agree with every school of thought, I respect them all. This being said, it doesnt change the fact that you want your source to be included properly to your paper, you want it to respect a certain methodology and you want your readers to understand easily and clearly where you got your information without invading your text. To that regard, my method includes the possibility to use the MLA or APA styles.

Many institutions ask their researchers, newspaper agents, scientists, employees, etc., to put the reference numbers before the period and never after the end of the sentence. Here are two examples...

A complete answer to this question is included in the paperback and electronic versions of the book.

Question # 7

The following data was submitted via email on March 7^th, 2008:

Dear Mr. Radford,

I want to quote the definition of the word 'didaktik' from a German dictionary that wasn't written by any one person. How do I do that? The name of the dictionary is Duden - Das Fremdwörterbuch. The publisher is Dudenverlag and the dictionary was published in 2006.

Thanks for your help,

Rebecca A.

Question # 8

The following data was submitted via email on March 27^th, 2008:

Dear Mr. Radford,

Thank you for you help with my last question. I would greatly appreciate your help with another problem.

I would like to cite from a book written by six authors, and am not quite sure how.

The book is called Medizinische Psychologie, the Authors are G. Sonneck, O. Frischenschlager, M. Hexel, U. Kropiunigg, I. Pucher and M. Schjerve.

Publishing company - Facultas in Vienna. Published in 1999. 6th Edition.

Chapter 6 in the book is called Arztrolle - Patientenrolle and the author is S. Rossmanith

The page I paraphrased is 104.

Where on earth do I put in the footnote and reference list?

Thank you!

Rebecca

Question # 9

The following data was submitted via email on August 12^th, 2008:

For each page of a document, does the numbering of the footnotes start again at #1, or can it continue? For example: on page 1 of the document, I have footnotes 1 6. On page 2 of the document, do I start with footnote #7 or start all over at #1?

Question # 10

The following data was submitted via email on August 27^th, 2008:

Dear Mr Radford,

I would be grateful for information. Can you put 'Ibid.' at the TOP of a footnote section when referring to a previous book, which full title is immediately placed before this 'Ibid.' but on previous page? Also, do you use 'Ibid.' to refer to a previous book ONLY or to the WHOLE previous footnote? There are some situations when I am referring to two different authors (2 books) in one footnote and in the next footnote only to the last author (1 book). Can I then use 'Ibid.' or should I specify that it is only the last book. Thank you for your help.

Regards,

Ania (Poland)

Question # 11

The following data was submitted via email on September 6^th, 2008:

Hi there,

Firstly, thanks very much for creating this site. No matter how many guidelines I've received I always seem to come across a situation that isn't dealt with! I'm wondering how to properly footnote a citation from a book that has been translated. For example, I'm quoting from a book originally written in German but translated to English. The book was originally entitled, Altirischen by Rudolf Thurneysen but my copy is called A Grammar of Old Irish, translated by D.A Binchy and Osborn Bergin. I'd greatly appreciate your help.

Regards

A.Ó. Cléirigh

Question # 12

The following data was submitted via email on September 18^th, 2008:

I have a simple question concerning footnotes; how do I cite the back cover of a book (i.e.: what word do I use instead of the page number)?

Hope you can help me!

Regards,
Tove

Question # 13

The following data was submitted via email on November 4^th, 2008:

Hello Robert,

I am a nascent writer and am working on my footnotes. In my paper, I have illustrated several viewpoints of experts to make the point that there is no consensus on how and when iron technology began in Africa. There is so much information to be explained that the viewpoints cannot be explained in a couple of sentences; I need to elaborate for a paragraph or two.

My question is...

I understand that a footnote is to be placed at the end of a sentence by which that idea came from another source. But, where do I place the footnote if the idea of the whole paragraph comes from the expert author and how will the reader know the footnote refers to the whole paragraph and not just one sentence?

Thank you very much for your response and direction!

Joni G.

Kansas City, Missouri

Additional Questions and Answers

Question # 14

The following data was submitted via email on November 18^th, 2005:

Dear Robert,

I have been using your web page to guide me to correctly make my quotations for my thesis. There is one quote I have not been able to quote correctly, for it is a tricky one and I can't do anything for making it right. The case is as follows:

Georges Banu transcribed, as accurate as possible (in his own words), the conference of Jerzy Grotowski. The text was published in ART/PRESS in Paris in 1987. If you could help me, I would be for ever thankful, for it is of primordial importance for me (and my university) to have all quotations and all rules in perfect order.

Thanks for your time.

E. Correa
P.S.: I am from Colombia and Spanish is my first language, so excuse my English.

From what I understand, Georges Banu went to a conference given by Jerzy Grotowski and, after hearing Grotowsky, decided to write an article regarding this particular conference, which he published in a 1987 ART PRESS review.

So, if thats the proper context for your source, your reference note should appear as follows (this is only an example):

Georges Banu, Ť Title of the article between quote marks ť, in Art Press (the title of the review, Art Press, must appear in italicized letters), # 34 (here goes the review's edition number, for instance #34 or No 34 if it is its 34th publication), Paris : Impr. Le Scorpion, September 1987, p. 26 (after Ť p. ť, indicate the page number of your articles quote or source of information; for example, p. 26, or pp. 26-27 if the source of your information appears on more than a single page). P.S.: after a quick research, it seems that this review's editor is Impr. Le Scorpion.

۩ Now, your footnote should look like this (this is only an example; a footnote can appear at the bottom of a page or at the end of your paper, but before the bibliography section):

Georges Banu, Ť How I became an impresario ť, in Art Press, No 34, Paris: Impr. Le Scorpion, September 1987, p. 26.

۩ For a bibliography reference, there are some differences though (the bibliography section must appear at the end of your paper, on the last page, where you mention all of your electronic and paper sources, books, reviews, etc):

BANU, Georges. Ť How I became an impresario ť, in Art Press. No 34. Paris: Impr. Le Scorpion, September 1987. pp. 22-41.

[In an article's bibliography reference, you must indicate the total number of pages; for example: pp. 22-41].

____________________________

Source: Robert Radford, Footnotes, Endnotes, Electronic References and Bibliography Methodology, Morrisville : Lulu, 2008, pp. 39-40.

Question # 15

The following data was submitted via email on March 30^th, 2008:

Dear Mr. Radford,

Thank you once again for your prompt answer. Next question: Our psychology professor has provided us supplementary notes to his lectures to download which I want to cite. They were written by himself, Markus Ebner, and two colleagues Marion Eckler and Andreas W. Fischer in Vienna 2008, but there's no publisher of course because it's never been published. How to quote this source? The name of the lecture is "Psychologie für Physiotherapiestudenten".

Thanks!

Rebecca

If the supplementary notes to his lectures are located on a locked website (i.e.: locked by a username and password), then an electronic reference wouldn't be of any help since, like you said, it would be impossible for the other readers to access information pointed out by your footnote/endnote.

When you made your initial request for information, I thought you meant that your professor made it possible for anyone to download his lectures - including people that do not have access to Wien's Campus Intranet Server (i.e.: through an open blog / public website).

Since an electronic reference can't be used because of accessibility reasons and since his lectures weren't published, the following footnote/endnote reference should be included to your paper:

Markus Ebner et al., "Psychologie für Physiotherapiestudenten". Supplementary notes given on [include exact date when the notes were made available online or in the classroom] by Professor [include your professors name and academic title here] for his lectures within [include the name of the University here] [include the code or the title of the course here] course.

In example:

Markus Ebner et al., "Psychologie für Physiotherapiestudenten". Supplementary notes given on April 1^st, 2008 by Professor Griffin, Ph.D., for his lectures within FH Campus Wiens PSY-3428 course.

For the bibliography:

EBNER, Markus et al. "Psychologie für Physiotherapiestudenten". Supplementary notes given on April 1^st, 2008 by Professor Griffin, Ph.D., for his lectures within FH Campus Wiens PSY-3428 course.

____________________________

Source: Robert Radford, Footnotes, Endnotes, Electronic References and Bibliography Methodology, Morrisville : Lulu, 2008, pp. 55-57.

Question # 16

The following data was submitted via email on November 9^th, 2008:

Good day Robert,

Next year, I should enter university and I would like to study history but I did not make up my mind yet. Would it be possible for you to give me some information about history as a field of study? I also want to thank you for this website...

Sonja P.

Vancouver, Canada

History can open many doors once you'll obtain your degree: many government employers are fond of historians and history leads the way to careers in journalism, education and literature.

In response to your question, here are the main characteristics of history as a field of study.

Best regards and good luck with your future projects!

Main characteristics of history

۩ History is partial: the image of the past will always be imperfect;

۩ in history, relativity plays a central role. Thus, there is no absolute truth: no law allows the forecast of history;

۩ the object of research is the link between men and the past;

۩ history is an instrument which makes it possible to overcome the crises and it is the representation of the continuity which allows theoretical formulations;

۩ and history is a science because of its method: historical criticism. One can thus stress that history is the most human of all the social sciences, and this, because of its investigation and explanation methodologies;

Is the work of the historian different from the work of specialists from other disciplines in social sciences?

۩ History is transcendent. Hence, the historian must constantly rewrite history;

۩ contrary to the political analysts, economists, etc., the historian does not have a specifically associated domain of reference. Thus, he can study any kind of history such as medical history, legal history, and so on;

۩ the historian must constantly work with metaphorical concepts and, sometimes, be guided by its intuition;

۩ and, in regard to other specialists, the historian will never be able to recreate the facts that he studies and describes, which is not the case of a physicist who can test his assumptions.

Personal qualities which the historian must have to carry out his work

۩ A strong amount of curiosity and initiative;

۩ some objectivity;

۩ some subjectivity;

۩ and, notably, a great interest for reading and writing (his basic work tools).

Some methodological parameters in history

۩ Constraints:

a. the sources used by the historian will determine the pace and direction of its work;

b. the personality of the historian will condition, more than the sources, the facts that he will have retained;

c. and the historian apprehends the past not as a past which was, at one time, the present, but as a present which was a past.

۩ Dimensions of the historian's field:

a. men: if there are no men, there is no history;

b. time and times: time is one-way (past towards the future) and irreversible (to go up time is an act of imagination). There are various times: physical time (days, years, etc), psychic time (according to the different consciences which have various perspectives in regard to the flow of time), social time (societies and their links to time) and historical time (represented by the historian scientific method);

c. freedom: men work through the historical process, and that, according to their own liking;

d. and totality: individualities themselves, with the whole of their specific features, are underlined by the historiographic speech.

۩ The problem:

a. history is done through the use of sources;

b. history is done through today's perspective;

c. the problem is subjective;

d. and one will be able to analyze sources from the past through criticism; one will be able to work out questions of the present because of the problem.

۩ The assumption:

a. the problem is accompanied by a possible answer and one wishes to check the latter thanks to the assumption;

b. and the assumption is resulting from an intellectual process that must be justified and informed.

۩ Heuristics:

a. a step towards the object of the past is the search for traces;

b. and to facilitate his work, the historian has a multitude of tools: catalogues of libraries, museums, files, inventories, bibliographical repertories, etc.

۩ Establishment of the facts.

۩ Comprehension.

۩ Presentation of knowledge acquired: its capacity to convince the reader.

Differences between the historical method and the other disciplines in social sciences

۩ Whereas the earth's history is the main concern of the geologist, that of the plants and animals of the palaeontologist, and whereas the history of the universe is the principal concern of the astronomer, the historian is mainly preoccupied by the individuals' knowledge, activities and creations.

۩ The subjectivity of the historian is unique within the scientific framework. We can be proud of this room for manoeuvre in regard to the sources which one uses. History is, indeed, the most human of the social sciences.

۩ As for the territory of the historian, the space-time concept is of the highest importance. Thus, one could not imagine an historian forsaking the temporal framework to the detriment of the spatial framework, or vice versa, whereas some geographers could very well cover particular subjects while limiting themselves to the concept of space, without taking into account the temporal framework.

۩ The main interest of history is social change. Thus, the historian wants to understand human society: how it changes, its differences, etc.?

۩ All that is social is meaningful to the historian: the daily lives of individuals; the long-term facts (structural) and the economical, demographical and cultural factors, notably.

۩ This being said, let's keep in mind that history does not correspond to the definition of science; it does not consist of abstract demonstrations (unlike mathematics); it is not verifiable through experimentation (unlike natural sciences); finally, it does not lead to laws which would allow forecasting! (L.-E. Halkin, Elements of Historical Criticism, Liege: H. Dessain, 1974, p. 19. Translated by Robert Radford).

____________________________

Source: Robert Radford, Footnotes, Endnotes, Electronic References and Bibliography Methodology, Morrisville : Lulu, 2008, pp. 69-74.

Question # 17

The following data was submitted via email on January 5^th, 2009:

I have a question about endnotes and bibliographies.

I am writing memoirs of World War II events. The first draft of the book is about 200 pages long. This is my first experience writing a book.

Presently I have a total 7 endnotes in the 6 chapters of the book. I have assigned a number to each endnote and placed the endnote number in superscript position at the end of the sentence where the endnote is applicable. Because I have only 200 pages, I have placed all the endnotes at the end of the book in numerical order, as they appear in the book. For each endnote I have listed the author, title, city where the book was published, publisher's name, year of publication and total number of pages, or the specific pages I use for my references.

In some cases the endnotes refer to specific pages in a book or publication. In other cases the endnote references the entire book or publication.

My questions are:
1. Am I following the correct procedure?
2. If not, can you advise me as the the correct procedure for citing such a small number of references?

Harold

Good day Harold,

Thank you for visiting my website and congratulations on writing your first book!

Using endnotes instead of footnotes is absolutely acceptable. You placed your endnotes at the end of your book, which is excellent. You could also include endnotes at the end of each section of your book. Its up to you. The only disadvantage of using endnotes instead of footnotes is that the reader will have to flip back and forth between the page hes reading and the endnotes section of the book if he wants to know where you got the information. On the other hand, using endnotes makes a book look more as a novel and less as a historical essay. Depends on what you want your book to be: a novel, an essay, a thesis It also depends on what type of readers your book is being written for: nascent readers could be scared of reading a book which would include footnotes at the end of several pages, whereas academics and historians are fond of such footnotes. Appearance is of the essence, as much as substance. I personally prefer footnotes.

One thing to remember though: the endnote must mention the sources specific page(s) where the information was found. Hence, you must not include the sources total number of pages in a footnote/endnote. Its only in the bibliography section of your book that youll specify each references total number of pages (i.e.: for a book, it could be 256 p. but for a review article, it would appear as pp. 15-35).

In my book, youll find more information on the proper formatting of endnotes and footnotes, particularly under FAQs # 1, # 3 and # 11.

Regarding the number of references included to your book, I wouldnt worry too much about it. Include an endnote only when required and dont worry about the total number of reference notes. Do not add any unnecessary notes but do not cut any if they are required. History is a science and we must respect a proper methodology endnotes included.

Best regards and tell me when your book is published. Im a big fan of WWI and WWII literature.

Robert Radford

Question # 18

The following data was submitted via email on January 11^th, 2009:

Good day to you sir!

I am not familiar in using footnotes but I need to for my position paper.

My question is: what will I do if I will use a source twice? My two consecutive sentences only have the same source. How do I cite them correctly? My source is from a website.

Thank you for your time! God bless!

- Nova

Good day Nova,

Thank you for visiting my website!

This particular question is answered in the paper and electronic versions of my book, notably under FAQs # 3 (on using a source more than once) and # 6 (on the proper format of a website source).

If you have any additional questions, do not hesitate to contact me.

Best regards.

Robert Radford

Question # 19

The following data was submitted via email on February 4^th, 2009:

Great website. Thanks!!

I have a two-part question. First, if the author is using information from a copyright protected document, does he or she still have to get permission from the publisher even if he or she gives proper attribution through endnotes or footnotes? And secondly, If information is readily available from a number of sources, is it necessary to even use a footnote? As an extreme example, if I wrote "Abraham Lincoln was assassinated at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C." I would not need an endnote, would I?

Thanks.

Jim
Newport News, VA

Good day Jim,

Your two questions are extremely interesting and relate to the notions of limited and fair use of footnotes, endnotes and/or electronic references in a document.

The concept of fair use of copyrighted information differs from country to country. Since you are an American, keep in mind that your nations Copyright Act of 1976 (under Title 17, Chapter 1, Article 107) stipulates clearly that fair use of copyrighted information for purposes such as journalistic reporting, teaching, criticism or research (notably) is not an infringement of copyright. You may want to visit Cornell University Law Schools Legal Information Institutes website for more information on the factors to be considered in regard to a definition of fair use: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.html. In Australia, its a different story though and I believe they must ask permission from the original creator/author before using information even though technical exemptions may also exist (maybe one of my websites Australian visitors could confirm this).

A few years ago, one of my secondary school students gave me his 5-page paper for evaluation. He decided to plagiarize a review article in its entirety but took great care of including quotation marks at the beginning and complete end of the text and, moreover, included a footnote in order to indicate its source. In such a case, limited use was clearly not respected and the student had to go back to step 1 and write an original paper for his homework. I explained to him that it was okay to include some information taken from another authors argumentation but to do so would require great moderation. Under the Copyright Act of 1976, it is also stated that the substantiality and amount of the portion used in relation to the complete copyrighted material is also a factor considered when determining fair use of copyrighted information.

As stated on this website, reference notes are required in four particular circumstances: when a quote is taken from another authors creation, when statistics are used, when precise ideas or concepts are taken from an authors argumentation (for criticism purposes or in order to defend or contradict a point of view, notably) or simply to include supplementary information. In such cases, copyright laws are not infringed if the information used from another source is limited and used fairly.

Regarding Abraham Lincolns assassination at Fords Theatre in Washington, D.C., you would not need to include an endnote because it isnt a specific quote from another author, it isnt related to any particular statistical figure and it is not a concept related to an argumentation or a theory. It is a recognized historical fact that Lincoln was killed by an assassin and that the shot that ultimately killed him was fired at the Ford Theatre in Washington, D.C. No endnote required. This being said and even though he was shot at Fords Theatre, he did not die during Our American Cousins performance on April 14, 1865, but the next morning.

Well, I hope my explanations are of some help.

As always, do not hesitate to contact me if you need any additional information or if you have any other questions. It is always a pleasure.

Best regards.

Robert Radford

Question # 20

The following data was submitted via email on February 6^th, 2009:

Wow!! What a nice and informative answer. Thank you very much. With the chance that I will make myself an unwelcome guest, I do have one other question that I was trying to remember when I wrote to you but it escaped me until now. Here it is:

if, in the narrative of your works, you make a direct reference to your source such as "In his book Jefferson the President, author Dumas Malone asserts that Thomas Jefferson was blah, blah, blah, etc.", would I still need a footnote? I am thinking probably so to document publisher, page number, etc.

Thank you so much for your time and I appreciate your very detailed answer.

Jim

Good day Jim,

It is always a pleasure to help out!

If you quote another author (using his exact same words) or if you stipulate another authors theory, argumentation, idea or group of ideas, then a footnote must be used in order to clearly identify the source of your information. Hence, if you state in your paper that In his book, Jefferson the President, author Dumas Malone asserts that Thomas Jefferson was (insert information here), then you will also have to add a reference number at the end of your sentence as well as a reference note (footnote, endnote or electronic reference). The reference number is linked to the reference note. Youll find footnotes, endnotes and electronic references examples on this website but more detailed information regarding the use and proper format of reference notes can be found in my book (notably under the Questions and Answers' Section), which is available as a paperback manual or as an electronic document (pdf).

Best regards.

Robert Radford

Question # 21

The following data was submitted via email on April 13^th, 2009:

How do you site a reference for an essay when it is published in a book that contains several essays written by different authors?

Thanks,

Tyrene F. C.

Good day,

Regarding your question, a proper format could be:

Authors name, Title of the essay, in Name of one of the books authors et al., Title of the book, city where the book was published: publishers name, year of publication, page number (where the reference can be found; p. if the information is on a single page and pp. if the information continues on more than a page).

Example (fictitious):

Robert Radford, The Moon and the Sun, in Tim Thomas et al., Planets and Stars, Montreal: Horizon Publishing, 2009, pp. 43-44.

Do not hesitate to contact me if you need any additional help.

Best regards.

Robert Radford

Question # 22

The following data was submitted via email on April 24^th, 2009:

Can you please tell me if it is proper to use footnotes in official letters. In my opinion, footnotes are for stories, articles, reports, reference books, etc., but not for official letters. My supervisor believes otherwise. I don't think we should use footnotes in official letters we send to our clients. I feel that when a special procedure applies to a special group of clients that it would be more appropriate to add a paragraph including the details; not a footnote.

I'd really appreciate your input on this.

Thank you very much.

Judy

Good evening Judy,

Firstly, many thanks for visiting my Footnotes' website! It's always a pleasure to receive emails from my site's visitors.

Your question is excellent and I believe it is the first time such a question has been asked.

There are two dimensions that we must consider in regard to your question:

1) the theoretical use of footnotes; and

2) the context in which such footnotes would be used.

Let's start with the use of footnotes in theory. Footnotes can (and should) be used:

۩	situation 1: whenever you include a quote taken directly from another author's book or article;

۩	situation 2: whenever you include one or many statistics (kilometers for a military frontage, number of victims in a conflict, amount of money given by a government, etc.);

۩	situation 3: whenever a very precise idea or group of ideas are taken directly and literally from another author's argumentation;

۩	situation 4: whenever you include supplementary information allowing you to define or illustrate in more details a concept included to your text.

Hence, in pure theory, whenever one of the previous four situations occur (and for any kind of document, official or not), a footnote could be used.

Now, since you're telling me that the document is an official letter sent to a special group of individuals, it is important for the sender of the document to understand (and remember) that its clientele may be composed of very different individuals: some of them are intellectuals, others are not; some of them may have difficulties reading official documentation while others may be literate; etc. Because of this diversity and, notably, the fact that the government and private companies have the obligation to ensure that their information is easy to read and comprehend, it is also my opinion that an additional paragraph including extra information on the special procedure be used.

This being said, let's not forget that official letters are not necessarily exempt of reference notes since such notes should be applied when one of the four previous situations occurs. It is up to you and your supervisor to decide if the inclusion of footnotes in the official document could lead some of your clients to misunderstand or misinterpret parts or all of the special procedure. It is true that footnotes are written, usually, in smaller letters and that being at the bottom of the page (footnote) or at the end of the document (endnote) may lead some people not to read it whereas a distinct paragraph within the document would be hard to miss.

So, in regard to supplementary information (the fourth situation mentioned above) included to an official public document, it is best - for this particular case - to do as you initially thought and include another paragraph. But, in regard to the three other situations, you should also include footnotes if required because it is important for the public to know where the sources of the information originate from (quotes from another book; statistics and/or another author's argumentation).

In a way, you are both right: you may need to use footnotes except for supplementary information which would appear in another distinct paragraph. If stats, quotes and/or arguments from a third party are not present then no footnotes are needed for this type of public document.

Hope my answer can shed some light.

Robert Radford

Quebec City, Canada

http://www.robertradford.com

COMMENTS FROM VISITORS ↑

Comment # 1:

The following data was submitted via the electronic form on April 26, 2004:

"I was looking for a website to explain footnotes to me and yours was the only GOOD one. Thank you! The only bad thing is that annoying menu thing that blocks some of the printing...".

Thanks for your kind words. It is always a pleasure to help people and I'm glad to see you were able to find the information you were looking for on my website. Regarding the "annoying menu", I took your comment into account and modified the webpage recently. Hence, visitors should not have any more difficulties printing the information included to this website.

Comment # 2:

The following data was submitted via the electronic form on February 6, 2005:

"Your website is a godsend, thank you so much. Your website is the only good one that actually explains footnotes and endnotes clearly. Can you please get rid of the Menu? It's really annoying and it blocks some of the text".

I'm glad to see you were able to find answers to your questions on my website. I took good note of your remark regarding the infamous "Menu" and, as you can see, I decided to delete it once and for all. Hence, the visitors shall not have any more problems with it. I did have technical problems with the comments' form though and had to take it off from the webpage temporarily... This being said, visitors can still reach me by email.

Comment # 3:

The following data was submitted via email on February 12, 2005:

"Thanks for taking your time to provide information on footnotes. Your website answered all my questions and was a pleasure to use. Bonnie".

Comment # 4:

The following data was submitted via the electronic form on June 15, 2005:

"Thank you so much for rescuing me in a pinch. I have been out of college a long time and needed to help someone with a paper. It was great to be able to go to a website and quickly get the info. Your commentary was also a good read. Thanks".

Comment # 5:

The following data was submitted via the electronic form on December 20, 2005:

"Dear Mr. Radford,

Hello, my name is Rachel. I'm an eigth grader, and I needed to figure out how to use footnotes for my thesis paper. Your website was the only one that clearly answered my questions and thanks to you, my teacher gave me an extra 15 points for using footnotes correctly!!! Thanks again!!! Merci beaucoup!!!".

Good day Rachel,

Thank you for visiting my website on footnotes and for your good words. I am very happy to know that my examples helped you get more points on your paper :). It is also very pleasant to receive feedback from my website's visitors...

Best regards!

Comment # 6:

The following data was submitted via email on September 7th, 2008:

"Good morning from Ireland,

Go raibh míle maith agat (thank you very much, literally may you have a thousand good things). Your website and service are fantastic resources for those of us attempting to enter the world of academia!

Tabhair aire

Antóin".

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